Both yields of maize and soybean and soil carbon sequestration in typical Mollisols cropland decrease under future climate change SPACSYS simulation

Although Mollisols are renowned for their fertility and high-productivity, high carbon (C) losses pose a substantial challenge to the sustainable provision of ecosystem services, including food security and climate regulation. Protecting these soils with a specific focus on revitalizing their C sequestration potential emerges as a crucial measure to address various threats associated with climate change. In this study, we employed a modeling approach to assess the impact of different fertilization strategies on crop yield, soil organic carbon (SOC) stock, and C sequestration efficiency (CSE) under various climate change scenarios (baseline, RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5). The process-based SPACSYS model was calibrated and validated using data from two representative Mollisol long-term experiments in Northeast China, including three crops (wheat, maize and soyabean) and four fertilizations (no-fertilizer (CK), mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK), manure only (M), and chemical fertilizers plus M (NPKM or NM)). SPACSYS effectively simulated crop yields and the dynamics of SOC stock. According to SPACSYS projections, climate change, especially the increased temperature, is anticipated to reduce maize yield by an average of 14.5% in Harbin and 13.3% in Gongzhuling, and soybean yield by an average of 10.6%, across all the treatments and climatic scenarios. Conversely, a slight but not statistically significant average yield increase of 2.5% was predicted for spring wheat. SOC stock showed a decrease of 8.2% for Harbin and 7.6% for Gonghzuling by 2,100 under the RCP scenarios. Future climates also led to a reduction in CSE by an average of 6.0% in Harbin (except NPK) and 13.4% in Gongzhuling. In addition, the higher average crop yields, annual SOC stocks, and annual CSE (10.15–15.16%) were found when manure amendments were performed under all climate scenarios compared with the chemical fertilization. Soil CSE displayed an exponential decrease with the C accumulated input, asymptotically approaching a constant. Importantly, the CSE asymptote associated with manure application was higher than that of other treatments. Our findings emphasize the consequences of climate change on crop yields, SOC stock, and CSE in the Mollisol regions, identifying manure application as a targeted fertilizer practice for effective climate change mitigation.